unit - 3 Instructional Objectives

Instructional Objectives

Teachers make a wide variety of instructional decisions that directly affect their students' learning. These decisions range from the choice of materials, pacing and sequencing of activities, to ways of reinforcing pupil's learning and means of assessing whatever the students have learnt. Different types of learning require different learning experiences and hence, different types of objectives. The objectives have to be tuned such that it covers the 3 H’s- Head, Heart and Hand. This necessity is exactly satisfied by the Bloom’s taxonomy that follows.

The need and significance of teaching mathematics

Teaching is a career that guides the thoughts of the next generation, training them to think clearly where other would only founder. It calls for a combination of skills demanded by few other professions and bring reward like no other, too. In is a career respected by the whole community and it also pays pretty well.

Aim in teaching mathematics

To develop a good understanding of numbers and the number system:

1. Maximising their counting ability.

2. Achieving a sound grasp of the properties of numbers and number sequences including negative numbers.

3. Achieving a good understanding of place value and ordering, including reading and writing numbers.

4. Understanding the principles and practice of estimating rounding.

Improving speed

1. Achieving a good understanding of number operations and relationships.

2. Achieving rapid mental recall of numbers facts

3. Maximizing the ability to undertake calculation using pencil and paper methods.

4.To develop a good ability solve problem :

1. Developing the ability to make decisions. E.g deciding which operation and method of calculation to use.

2. Improving the ability to solve problems involving numbers in context

Practical and social teaching mathematics

Teaching secondary school mathematics is a research based introduction to the professional knowledge, attributes and practices needed to teach mathematics well at secondary level.

They outline the secondary mathematical curriculum and methods of assessment, and examine the pedagogical strategies teachers can use to engage student interest in mathematical concepts.

The core mathematical topics covered at secondary level are reviewed and the authors also explore the issues teachers need to consider with students of diverse backgrounds.

The combination of research and practical teaching ideas ensures current and worthwhile advice for teaching ideas ensures current and worth while advice for teaching secondary or middle school students.

Cognitive Objectives

Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Many refer to Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's.

Examples:

• Given a description of a planet, the student will be able to identify that planet, as demonstrated verbally or in writing.The student will be able to evaluate the different theories of the origin of the solar system as demonstrated by his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

Bloom describes several categories of cognitive learning.

Starting with basic factual knowledge, the categories progress through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

• Knowledge - Remembering or recalling information.
• Comprehension - The ability to obtain meaning from information.
• Application - The ability to use information.
• Analysis - The ability to break information into parts to understand it better.
• Synthesis - The ability to put materials together to create something new.
• Evaluation - The ability to check, judge, and critique materials.In the 1990's, Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, along with David Krathwohl, one of Boom's original partners, worked to revise the original taxonomy. The Anderson and Krathwohl Taxonomy was published in 2001 in the book "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."

Here is a comparison of the original and revised taxonomies.

Note that in the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are switched. Also, verbs are used in place of nouns to imply the action one takes in each level.

• Remember - Using memory to recall facts and definitions.
• Understand - Constructing meaning from information.
• Apply - Using procedures to carry out a task.
• Analyze - Breaking materials into parts to determine structures and relationships.
• Evaluate - Making jugements based on checking against given criteria.
• Create - Putting materials together to form a unique product.

Key Verbs for the Cognitive Domain
Remember	Understand	Apply	Analyze	Evaluate	Create
Define Identify List Name Recall Recognize Record Relate Repeat Underline/Circle	Cite examples of Demonstrate use of Describe Determine Differentiate between Discriminate Discuss Explain Express Give in own words Identify Interpret Locate Pick Report Restate Review Recognize Select Tell Translate Respond Practice Simulates	Apply Demonstrate Dramatize Employ Generalize Illustrate Interpret Operate Operationalize Practice Relate Schedule Shop Use Utilize Initiate	Analyze Appraise Calculate Categorize Compare Conclude Contrast Correlate Criticize Deduce Debate Detect Determine Develop Diagram Differentiate Distinguish Draw conclusions Estimate Examine Experiment Identify Infer Inspect Inventory Predict Relate Solve Test Diagnose	Appraise Assess Choose Compare Critique Estimate Evaluate Judge Measure Rate Score Select Validate Value Test		Arrange Assemble Collect Compose Construct Create Design Develop Formulate Manage Modify Organize Plan Prepare Produce Propose Predict Reconstruct Set-up Synthesize Systematize Devise

 Affective Objectives

 Affective objectives are designed to change an individual's attitude, choices, and relationships.

 Example:

• Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.

Krathwohl and Bloom created a taxonomy for the affective domain that lists levels of commitment (indicating affect) from lowest to highest.

The levels are described as follows:

Affective Domain Hierarchy
Level	Definition	Example
Receiving	Being aware of or attending to something in the environment.	Individual reads a book passage about civil rights.
Responding	Showing some new behaviors as a result of experience.	Individual answers questions about the book, reads another book by the same author, another book about civil rights, etc.
Valuing	Showing some definite involvement or commitment.	The individual demonstrates this by voluntarily attending a lecture on civil rights.
Organization	Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some ranking among one's general priorities.	The individual arranges a civil rights rally.
Characterization by Value	Acting consistently with the new value.	The individual is firmly committed to the value, perhaps becoming a civil rights leader.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing affective objectives:

Key Verbs for the Affective Domain
Receiving accept attend develop recognize	Responding complete comply cooperate discuss examine obey respond	Valuing accept defend devote pursue seek	Organization codify discriminate display order organize systematize weigh	Characterization internalize verify

Psychomotor Objectives

This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviours from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist. Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:

• Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity.
• Set - Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain way to a situation.
• Guided Response - First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice lead to better performance.
• Mechanism - The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual with a medium level of assurance and proficiency.
• Complex Overt Response - Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful.
• Adaptation - Movements can be modified for special situations.
• Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.

Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy:

• Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.
• Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill.
• Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the presence of the original source.
• Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.
• Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.

Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:

• Reflex movements - Automatic reactions.
• Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more complex sets of movements.
• Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.
• Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.
• Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.

The following list is a synthesis of the above taxonomies:

                           

Psychomotor Domain Hierarchy
Level	Definition	Example
Observing	Active mental attending of a physical event.	The learner watches a more experienced person. Other mental activity, such as reading may be a pert of the observation process.
Imitating	Attempted copying of a physical behavior.	The first steps in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction and feedback on performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.
Practicing	Trying a specific physical activity over and over.	The skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly. Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.
Adapting	Fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in order to perfect it.	The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing psychomotor objectives:

Key Verbs for the Psychomotor Domain
bend calibrates constructs differentiate (by touch) dismantles displays fastens fixes grasp	grinds handle heats manipulates measures mends mixes operate	organizes perform (skillfully) reach relax shorten sketches stretch write

                        Instructional objectives are the foundations for teaching-learning and assessment in education. Not only are they the first step in establishing the validity of our instructional methods and instructions, they actually serve to expedite the process of systematic course development. The learning outcomes associated with these objectives are the common thread that is woven through all aspects of an instructional course. Objectives provide the structure that helps educators to organize and communicate their instructional intent, they direct the development of teaching and learning strategies, and they form the basis for developing measurement instruments. Because of the critical role they play, it is imperative that you invest the effort in developing clearly written instructional objectives and learning outcomes as the initial step in the development of an instruction.